The Importance of Psychology Today

The study of mental functions and human behavior in which scientists develop hypotheses and test these theories are referred to today as psychology. In effort to explain the human behaviors, psychologist research and use the studies of other psychologist in effort to find the answers to question like why a person acts or behaves the way they do? The most common approaches in psychology are behavioral, psychoanalytic, cognitive, social/cultural, and physiological. The complexity of humans has fascinated scientist for years.Psychologists have been investigating human’s cognitive, humanistic, social/cultural and behavioral responses since the beginning of this century. It has been only recently that the physiological approach has begun to understand how the brain affects behavior and how behavior affects the brain. In the 1800’s psychology used two major approaches known as structuralism and functionalism. Structuralism approach analyses the basic elements of experiences i n which people acknowledged. In effort to research mental awareness of people, psychologies recorded the verbal explanations of their experiences.Functionalism focused on how the brain processes information when people are being observed in the ideal learning conditions. Frances Galton believed that intellectual abilities were inherited and fixed at birth because when he observed that people in the same family often were similar in terms of intelligence. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a psychologist named Stanley Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the founder of the first scientific psychological journal.The American Psychological Association provided a way from many psychologists to share their researches. Hall was one of the first psychologists to explain the biological view of human behavior with an emphasis on stages of development unfolding in a predetermined way. Hall observed children and described the ages that cer tain behaviors could be expected. He believed that children had an inner timetable to display behaviors like crawling, waking, and talking which occurred at similar ages regardless of the learning or experience of the children (Schickedanz &Forsyth).In addition, several child psychologists gathered dada to establish age-related standards or patterns of behavior that applied to large groups of children. This was considered the norms for child behavior and became known as the developmental theory that is still in use today. The psychoanalytic theory originated with Sigmund Freud. While the earlier part of the twentieth century documented intellectual and physical development, Freud studied personality and emotional development. He recognized the importance of biology but also stressed the interaction of biology with the environment.Freud was interested in neurology and the psychological causes of the subject’s behavior responses. This component of personality, Freud labeled ins tinct and referred to the mental representation of the body’s needs and functions. Today, psychologists still use Freud’s theory and parts of the personality of people in their studies of human behavior. Some Psychologist use Freud’s theory of the id, ego, and superego. The id is the unconscious source of instinct and operated according to the pleasure principle and gratification. The ego tries to direct the id but is the reality-oriented part of the personality.The ego tries to deter the id so that there is not a negative consequence to the instinctive action. Next, there is the superego in which is part of the moral component of the personality. According to Freud, the superego is responsible for guilt and anxiety and understand the significant of punishment when display inappropriate behavior. Finally, there is the ego defense mechanism in which guards the ego against overwhelming negative consequences form others. Later, Erik Erikson developed another theory because he did not agree with Freud’s theory of the id, ego, and superego. Erikson focused more on how society affects the ego.He believed that healthy adaptation to reality differs greatly from one society to another. He saw that society’s demands on a person would change the person as he or she grows. Therefore, an individual is influence by his or her environment. These external environmental changes were also responsible for shaping behavior so that the behavior reflected the views of society. Another well known psychologist was B. F. Skinner and he was a behaviorist. His behaviorism theory was often referred to as radical behaviorism. He showed that reinforcing the desired behaviors produces the desire response.He proved this theory when he demonstrated how a pigeon would peck a red dot when it knew it opened a door to reveal bird food ( Branches of Psychology). Today, positive reinforcement is frequently used to change the undesirable behaviors of children. As a result, children produce the desired behavior society expects at home, in school, and in any other environment (Dong & Juhu) The social/cultural approach covers the behavioral patterns of society as a whole. These behavioral patterns cover lifestyles, habits, arts, rituals, beliefs, activities, and ethics.It is common belief by Carl Gustav Jung that humans share common emotions and awareness regardless of the identified culture. Humans are social creatures and the cultural customs shape people’s behavior from childhood. Today, in United States there are many cultures, a variety of religious beliefs, social gathering, political beliefs, and economic influences that structure society (Overskeid). Today, the shift in roles in which people play like stay home dads, male nurses, and female police officers are becoming the norms in certain areas of society.The biological approach of psychology is the study of the brain and the nervous system. The nervous system is the central syst em within the body that carries messages to the brain. The crucial section is the neurons which are the structures of the nerve cell and it is responsible for transmissions that occur between the nerve cells and the brain. There are many other parts of the nervous system but the brain is the most important. There are three anatomy of the brain but the cerebral cortex section of the brain is responsible for the basic behavior functions.The biological psychology studies all of the parts of the body and how each of these parts affects human behaviors. Biological psychology takes into account genetics and the large roll it plays in human behavior. Genetics does not just refer to inherited traits but also to what is inside the body, such as glandular and hormone functions. Biology plays and important part of psychology because it allows scientist to learn about the brain functions and how to help people who suffer from head traumas.It also allows scientist a way to understand how brain t raumas correlates between physical responses, as well as their emotional responses to situations when a person could not recall actual memories that delivered such responses. In conclusion, the more common approaches in psychology today are behavioral, psychoanalytic, cognitive, and social/cultural. The behavioral approach emphasizes that behavior is shaped by the environment while psychoanalytic approach is the study of how the brain affects behavior and how behavior affects the brain. The cognitive pproach is the research of how awareness, thoughts, and strategies to problem solve affect individual’s lives. The cognitive approach studies whether or not a person’s behavior is a result of consciousness guiding a person’s personal feelings. Social/cultural approach relates to a situation that influences actions that are considered to be the norms of society and which roles people play. The biological approach is important because it provides a way for psychologis t to understand a person who suffers from a head trauma emotional and physically.

The Positive and Negative Impacts of Sports Development in Malaysia and How It Boosts the Country’s Tourism Industry

The Positive and Negative Impacts of Sports Development in Malaysia and How It Boosts the Country’s Tourism Industry. Events Tourism is essentially an event that is staged by the destination to appeal and benefit from visitors, domestic and international. The event is the visitor’s primary purpose or motive for visiting, with the destination receiving either positive or negative impacts as a consequence of hosting it (McCartney, 2011). There are no doubt many events in Malaysia that enhance the interest of visitors are mostly done using sports. Hence, there are certain positive impacts of sports development in Malaysia. Despite the many positive impacts there is as a form of tourist attraction, it is disappointing that sports development in Malaysia has not been given much attention to as there are those who say many negatives impacts that may arise. Sport events generates diverse and heterogeneous flows of travelers that may include fans, athletes, coaches, media, team personnel, parents and family members (Gratton, Shibli & Coleman, 2004). The fact that sports events in Malaysia attract tourists is well established. Prominent examples are the Formula One Grand Prix, South East Asian Games, Thomas Cup Badminton Finals and the Commonwealth Games. Malaysia has never hosted the Olympic Games but will someday embrace the day when they do. The founder of the Olympic Games was none other than Pierre de Coubertin. He cited that, â€Å"competition produces harmony between competitors and the organizations or nations they represent’’. It was his believe that sport brings people and nation together. First of all, tourists travel away from home just to search for satisfying leisure activities. Not many might be interested in sports but rather somehow tourists are diverse and may participate in recreational sports event such as mountain climbing or white water rafting. These activities are also sports and they should be developed further despite being a recreational sport. For example, mountain climbing and white water rafting are 2 very famous sports in Australia and if tourists from Australia would come down to our country and wanting to do these activities, they would be disappointed. Although Malaysia has those 2 activities here and there but they are not taken very seriously. Thus, changing the diversity of the tourists where they would be forced to participate in sports that are more familiar in our country. Malaysia hosted the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and that has actually made a huge impact on the country’s tourism industry. How so? This is because there were participations from all the countries around the world to all compete in the Commonwealth Games. In that process, these foreign athletes are indirectly tourists as well. They are brought into our country to try our food, enjoy the weather, and experience the diversity of culture, also at the same time participating in the games. During their stay in our country, they will get to realize how beautiful our country is. In the long run, when the athletes are done with the games, they tend to tell the others from their countries what Malaysia is all about. The power of word of mouth will eventually start attracting more and more tourists to come in and visit. Hence the country’s tourism industry will be boosted and all it takes is by hosting a prominent event such as the Commonwealth Games in Malaysia. Malaysian’s sports developers can continue having international tournament for every possible sporting event there is to continue influencing foreign athletes and thus increasing the amount of tourists to come. However, Malaysian tourism industry must also meet the requirements of the tourists that will plan to visit. Much similar to the previous point, Malaysian sports developers can send local athletes out to foreign countries to also influence and spreading the wonders of our country. Thus, also another way of increasing the amount of tourists that hopefully will visit Malaysia. There is also a downside of sports development in Malaysia. Everybody knows that if the sports developers would to invest their funds wrongly, many things can go wrong. First of all, this would give a bad impression of our sport development among the foreign countries and would result in the decrease in the amount of tourists wanting to visit Malaysia. Next, foreign athletes or coaches will not be interested to come in as well. Even if a large sum of money would be involved, these foreign athletes are better of knowing that staying in a country where the sport development is depriving will just be a waste of their time. However, if the sports developers would want to invest their funds on a certain sport, they would have to try to enhance the athletes to get good performances and directly sending a message to other countries telling them how dominant we are in sports. If those foreign athletes knew how dominant we are in sports, most of them would want to come over to our country to train. Again that would be a golden opportunity for more tourists to come in. Foreign athletes that come over to train usually stay for months. So, they will be familiar with the culture of our country and also spread it among themselves when they get back to their country. Hence, they would want to know more about our country as they have only heard but not experience the lifestyle in Malaysia. However, it is a risk that the Malaysian sports developers have to take as they cannot predict how the Malaysian athletes will perform, but there are measures that can be taken to improve them. Once they are confident that the particular sport can bring glory to the country then they are able to invest their funds into them. By doing so, hopefully more and more foreign countries will recognize the potential in the Malaysian athletes and decides to come in and ‘blend’ with us Malaysians. However, some have that mentality stating it is because of the foreign coaches that are so called ‘betraying’ their country into coaching Malaysian athletes to glory. They need to be reminded that Malaysia will always welcome foreign coaches or athletes to come over and not to bring them in using external factors like money. It is clearly their preference and decision for them to come and visit Malaysia. Finally, it can be drawn from the points above that the Malaysian sport development is able to boosts the country’s tourism industry despite having negative impacts. It is essential to realize that there is a solution for those negative impacts which are yet to come. A study of what motivates tourist behavior must also take into account in relation to a variety of sport tourist profiles. Some chooses challenging sports, other prefers small amateur sporting event. They need to realize that the reason for an amateur event is for tourists to enjoy the leisure not to pressure or interrupt their free time. On the other hand, the focus is on performance in terms of skills when it comes to those who choose the more challenging sport. Nevertheless, the Malaysian sports developers will need to brainstorm on ways to offer different types of sport to associate with the preference of tourists who will be sitting our country. It is concluded that impacts on sports developments can boost the country’s tourism industry in many ways and in our country, they will keep finding alternatives to also improve the sports development to make Malaysia a powerhouse in years to come. From this conclusion, it’s interesting to know what really drives people to be sports tourists and more specifically what drives them to be a spectator of a sport event (Hendrik-Jan Ottevanger, 2007).

Great Gatsby is a tragic hero Essay

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby is a classic American tragedy. The novel has all the basic elements necessary to classify a story as a tragedy: a tragic hero, his character flaw, and a twist of fate which results in the hero’s ultimate destruction. Jay Gatsby is the doomed tragic hero, blinded by his irrational dream to relive the past. Fate interferes in the form of the unexpected manslaughter of one character’s mistress by his wife. All these facets of the story come together to cause the end of Gatsby. In order for a character to be defined as a tragic hero, he must be noble in character. Jay Gatsby demonstrates this in his devotion to Daisy Buchanan, whom he has been preparing for a re-encounter with for the past 5 years. When he finally finds himself in her presence again, â€Å"†¦there were twinkle-bells of sunshine in the room, he smiled like a weather man, like an ecstatic patron of recurrent light†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He talks with Daisy, and even after 5 whole years of building her up in his mind, he is still very much in love with her. â€Å"†¦[After speaking with her,] there was a change in Gatsby that was simply confounding. He literally glowed; without a word or a gesture of exultation a new well-being radiated from him and filled the room.† He loves her, everything he does is for her, and there is no characteristic more noble than true love and devotion. The very denotation of a tragic hero is a noble person with a tragic flaw which helps to bring about his downfall, and which may cause the hero to make poor decisions. Mr. Gatsby’s character flaw is his enduring dream of finding Daisy, the woman he met and fell in love with before he was sent to fight in World War I, and reuniting with her. When they met, he was a poor nobody and she was a member of the old-money elite, a match that they both knew could not possibly work. So, even though he knew she was married, when Jay came back from the war, he devoted his life to reinventing himself to make himself good enough for her. â€Å"Out of the corner of his eye Gatsby saw that the blocks of the sidewalks really formed a ladder and mounted to a secret place above the trees — he could climb to it, if he climbed alone, and once there he could suck on the pap of life, gulp down the incomparable milk of wonder.† Basically, his pure, true love for Daisy was reinforced with obsession and encased in determination and wrapped in everything he  could find to make it real again. His love for Daisy outweighed any kind of reality to the point where he could no longer distinguish fact from fiction. â€Å"It had gone beyond her, beyond everything. He had thrown himself into it with a creative passion, adding to it all the time, decking it out with every bright feather that drifted his way. No amount of fire or freshness can challenge what a man will store up in his ghostly heart.† Fate, with the tragic flaw, plays the principal role in the undoing of the protagonist. In The Great Gatsby, the turn of fate is when Daisy, driving Gatsby’s car with him in the passenger seat, hits and instantly kills Myrtle Wilson, and in a panic flees the scene, too shaken to stop the car. Myrtle Wilson happens to be the woman who Daisy’s husband tom has been cheating on her with, and Myrtle’s husband George Wilson witnesses the accident. He sees his wife killed by someone driving Gatsby’s car. He find out that the car belongs to Gatsby, who he has never met before, and assumes that it was he who had so violently and recklessly killed his wife. George, in a state of grief-stricken insanity, kills Jay Gatsby in his own backyard the very next day. It didn’t happen a moment too soon, either. The quality of Gatsby’s life had been deteriorating at an exponential rate, ironically, since his dream had come true. Becoming involved with Daisy at this point was upsetting his life — he had learned firsthand of the shortcomings of the woman he loved, had witnessed her weaknesses. It was tearing him up inside that he had spent half a decade on something that would be mostly detrimental to him in the end. â€Å"†¦perhaps he no longer cared. If that was true he must have felt that he had lost the old warm world, paid a high price for living too long with a single dream.† The narrator conjectures of Gatsby that, just before his death, â€Å"He must have looked up at an unfamiliar sky through frightening leaves and shivered as he found what a grotesque thing a rose is and how raw the sunlight was upon the scarcely created grass.† Gatsby’s intentions were pure, modest, innocent, genuine, but the momentum of his pursuit carried him into trouble when he was forced to stop dreaming because his dream had become reality, a thing to which Gatsby had become unaccustomed after imagining for so long. Once his dream tumbled into a  brick wall and things were sent spinning in disarray, there was no longer a place for Jay Gatsby. He had come to belong only to his dream, and was consumed by it. â€Å"†¦Gatsby turned out all right at the end; it is what preyed on Gatsby, what foul dust floated in the wake of his dreams that temporarily closed out my interest in the abortive sorrows and short-winded elations of men.†

Salem Trials Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Salem Trials - Essay Example To defend themselves from the punishment and excommunication of their religion, they had to admit that they were unaware of what they have done and that some witch cast a spell upon them and made them do such kind of things. An act that was born out of curiosity and adventure now turned into a general crisis. Upon realizing this story, the authorities took action by demanding that the girls give out names, thus 19 people were accused. Similarly, history seemed to have repeated itself in the guise of cold war when the conflict between USSR and USA erupted. Due to ideological differences, the communistic Russia compounded several reasons to cause apprehension among Americans. Both countries began to question their subject's loyalty and considered everyone a threat to their liberty. In America, a massive hunt for communist began. The HUAC campaign of John McCarthy "expounded fiery anti-Communist diatribes in print and in the new medium of television" (Boyer. 1985). What started as mere rivalry of powers, turned into a dark cloud of suspicion above everyone, and so began the espionage mission to address the impending threat to national security. The arrest, prosecution and execution of the Rosenbergs started the massive hunt for treacherous act which denotes how suspicions play a role in one's decision over the inherent right to be heard and to live freely. The announcement of those who were suspected to have communi stic inclinations working inside the government extended far into the strata of prominent actors, producers, academes, and scientists, where no one was excluded and no amount of heroism and bravery could restrain its deadly repercussions. Likewise in this era, there was also this looming suspicion as to the possession of nuclear weapon, a powerful arm set for massive destruction and even to the demise of mankind. There are several angles whereby the Salem witch trial ran in parallel with, the Cold War and Arms Race, and this is most clear in the area of power, more particularly in the aspect of subordination and the exercise of authority. The central theme of this paper is to point out the aspects in which all three are parallel and why they are considered as such. The Parallels in the aspect of a socialist view The commonalities in Salem trials, the cold war and arms race, lies in the nature where the unfounded skepticisms triggered enormous abuse to mankind, denying the inherent right to live and defend life. The Salem witch trial is congruent to both cold wars and arms race is the sense that each of them demonstrates the manipulation of the subordinates without paying any consideration to the subject's inherent right. All three stories defines the American culture of conformity, whereby one is forced to align his or her ideals according to what the standards say or what is generally accepted to be correct. Conformity, dictates that one is forced to follow if one does not want to be an outcast. In the Salem Witch trial, everyone conformed to the standards of their religion and because the practice of witch craft is deemed heretic by the church, then everyone who violates this standard ought to suffer punishment. Not one of those young children who accused 19 people of heresy took their wor d back for fear. No one dared defended the innocence of the accused for fear of being committing the

Identy theft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Identy theft - Essay Example A high percentage of credit card companies send out checks for the purpose of paying off other cards, or to use like cash. The checks often arrive with your statements, and are sometimes sent separately. As the consumer, you do not know when they are sent. Unfortunately, some of the credit card companies do not know when they send them. The criminals can get their hands on your checks in many ways. They can be stolen right out of your mailbox. They can be misappropriated by a postal employee. They can be shanghaied with other mail from a mail truck. There are probably a hundred other methods, but you get the picture, it is easy for the criminal to get his or her grubby hands on your financial documents. The most successful approach is a proactive one. The most effective solution is to ensure the checks are not sent at all, and to this end I recommend you cancel your credit cards. If you have no credit cards, you will receive no credit card checks. At a minimum, call all of your credit card companies and ask them to stop sending the checks, they will be happy to oblige. Another approach is to have them sent only upon your request. This way you can still have the use of the checks, and you can track roughly when, and how many, are sent. You might ignore this advice, as I would have at an... The check clearing companies do not care about consumers, they do not even use the driver's license information that most proprietors verify when a check is written! If you are unlucky enough to have this happen to you, you will undoubtedly be shocked, as I was, to hear the police tell you that you are not the victim! The victims are the stores that cashed the check, or the check clearing companies, because they will eventually be the ones with actual monetary losses. These steps are just the first of many if you truly want to protect yourself. They will potentially save you; a lot of grief, time spent trying to get agencies to help, a considerable amount of money, frustration, and stress in general. For more information, check out . This site is an excellent entry point for you to educate yourself about the many aspects of identity theft. Protect yourself, be proactive, and tell everyone you know the same. Brochure Front cover: IDENTITY THEFT AN INVISIBLE CRIME Victims of identity theft usually do not even know that they have been targeted until it is to late. Identity theft can take years and a lot of money to clear up, and until it is credit is ruined and lives are destroyed. As with other crimes we cannot completely control if we are victims, but we can be aware how criminals obtain our private information, how to reduce the risk of being a victim and some helpful information on what to do after the crime is committed. Inside How Does Our Private Information Fall Into The Wrong Hands Stealing records from their employer, Bribing an employee who has access to these records, or Hacking into the organization's computers. Rummage through your trash Obtain

Age and Gender Conflicts in the workplace Research Paper

Age and Gender Conflicts in the workplace - Research Paper Example This is so needed as there is room for understanding and empathy for one another and what must not take the rounds of organizations is a lack of civility and complete abhorrence with the standards and practices which are rampant in a workplace domain. Workplace conflicts can be of expounding nature because these bring about bad blood amongst the employees and they start feeling alienated for all the wrong reasons. What the top management does is important because it essentially decides the good and the bad aspects, and then passes on the directions to the human resources management department, which later on carries the same forward. Gender conflicts do arise when men and women have problem in working along with one another. These could mean that either of the two genders have issues in coordinating or getting along with each other. This could essentially hurt the basis of the business and bring problems left, right and center. The role of the leadership is one of an important one because it needs to decide for its own self what course of action to undertake. If the leadership is weak and compromising, then there is a good amount of material available with the research done that the conflicts would increase within the workplace with each passing day. Such discussions center on the dictum that work takes the back seat and foolish rifts crop up every now and then. This is a very discouraging situation at work and should be avoided as much as possible (Schultz 2003). If the leaders do not realize their due role, it would be very easy to deduce that they are not doing their jobs properly. What this also means is the fact that the leadership must pull up its socks so that the sanctity of the organization could be restored, and that there are minimal issues which crop up every now and then. The employees look up to the leaders, which in this case would comprise of the top level management and hence it is the duty of the latter to make sure that

Personal Philosophy of Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Philosophy of Education - Essay Example The paper herein thus offers an insightful discussion about principal values in a personal philosophy of education that is founded on a Christian view. In this personal philosophy of education, the fundamental principles are the pillars that give a comprehensive explanation to it. The principles make the philosophy from a Christian worldview with an intrinsic rationalization based on Christian values, virtues and ways (Valmyr, 2009). Education in the simplest explanation is the acquisition of knowledge. However, in Christianity, ultimate knowledge and truth is found in the word of God. As explained in the book of Hebrews, ultimate knowledge and truth became universal truth and absolute and hence it became flesh among believers. Thus, the Bible is the authoritative source for all instruction and truth even though it might not give adequate knowledge about every earthly subject that is taught in our schools. However, the Bible stands as the framework of all inquiries since it provides guidelines and principles for all our aspects of lives including educational and intellectual lives. The Bible thus shows how some subjects such as arts, science, and mathematics fit the world that the Almighty God created. The Bible allows us to understand that nature reflects Gods character. Thus, as Christian educators, we must nurture a culture of reading the Bible in students for them to understand and discover the Almighty God since most of the knowledge about Him is found in that Holy book. Christian educators understand that learning is dependent on a belief system or faith. The beliefs that we harbor are critical in influencing the manner in which we absorb knowledge and interpret it. Thus, it is imperative for Christian educators to examine any fathomable worldview according to the word in the biblical scriptures so that our educational and worldview foundation is in Gods revelation and not cultural prejudices. Our students must also be taught the same

How Construction has evolved and developed to the current standards Dissertation

How Construction has evolved and developed to the current standards. (Re-word if needed) - Dissertation Example The regulations relating to buildings and their construction is fundamental to the health, welfare and safety of everyone who live in a building, work in a building at some time transact business in and around building. These individuals of course include the disabled for whom special requirements have been given. They also seek to promote the conservation of fuel and power and the prevention of waste and water (planning regulations research (SAIC 2007). communities.gov). Individuals spend approximately 90% of their time in buildings (SAIC 2007). In the UK, over one third of the carbon dioxide emissions come from buildings. The emission of carbon dioxide is very harmful to the environment and in order to protect the ozone layer we have to emphasise the importance of standards. Building Standards are fundamental to the health and safety of us all. In this regard the authorities are working hard to ensure that standards are achieved and continuously improved. Compliance and enforcement has become new issues as standards are being adapted to keep abreast with design, technology, materials and construction, as well as energy conservation issues. However, there has been increasing concerns with regards to the level of compliance, frequency, pace and increasing complexity of these changes. 2.0 The Evolution of Building Standards Construction standards have evolved overtime with frequent and more complex Building Regulations since the 1990’s. These changes relate to: Structure of buildings, Fire safety to both dwelling houses and other buildings, Site preparation and resistance to contaminants and moisture; Toxic substances; Resistance to the passage of sound; Ventilation; Hygiene; Drainage and waste disposal; Combustion appliances and fuel storage systems; Guidance and Supplementary Information on the UK Implementation of European Standards for Chimneys and Flues; Conservation of fuel and power to existing dwelling houses, other buildings, new dwelling houses and other new buildings; access to and use to buildings; Glazing – safety in relation to impact, opening and cleaning; Electrical safety – Dwellings; Materials and workmanship. 2.1 Old Trafford to Wembley Old Trafford was built starting from as far back as the 1900s when requirements were very barely significant. However, there have been major demolitions, modifications and additions since that time. The old roof pillars were replaced in 1965 with modern-style cantilevers. Changes were also made to focus crowd noise on the pitch. The final adjustment was made in 2004 in order to ensure that all spectators had seats. Old Trafford has aspects of the new standards based on

American Presidency Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

American Presidency - Essay Example In general, each man who has held the position, has faced somewhat similar circumstances while holding the job, but have been forced to approach them from an individualistic standpoint that stays true to their respective convictions, while outlining their legacies in the pages of the history books that future generations will come to read. As for the American Presidency, the following are listed under Article II of the US Constitution in regards to the issue of the role of the office of the Presidency and in particular the tools available to its occupant; Chief Diplomat: Under the Constitution, the president has more authority over foreign policy than the other branches of the government (but not sole authority). The president can negotiate treaties (with consent of the Senate), appoint diplomatic personnel, and has sole power to recognize governments. Commander-in-Chief: The Constitution places the president as the head of the armed forces of the United States. One way to look at this is that he is the general of the generals. This is important because it guarantees civilian control over the military (something missing in many countries of the world). One of the last major challenges to the presidency as commanderin-chief came when General douglas McArthur challenged Truman's policies during the Korean War which led to President Truman's firing of McArthur. Chief Legislator: No bill propos... Commander-in-Chief: The Constitution places the president as the head of the armed forces of the United States. One way to look at this is that he is the general of the generals. This is important because it guarantees civilian control over the military (something missing in many countries of the world). One of the last major challenges to the presidency as commanderin-chief came when General douglas McArthur challenged Truman's policies during the Korean War which led to President Truman's firing of McArthur. Chief Legislator: No bill proposed by the congress can become a law without the president's signature. Thus the president is also involved in the process of legislation. But the Constitution mandates that the president "from time to time" inform the congress on the state of the union (the U.S.). By tradition, this has become a yearly event known as the State of the Union Address. Through this address the president helps to set legislative priorities for the coming year. ("The Presidency", p.1). Different President's come into office at different times during the course of their nation's history. Contrary circumstances that can lead different men in vastly different directions and lead them to having distinct Presidencies in their own right. In regards to what would enable a President to succeed, as well as what could make then fail, "Two hundred years of our country's history suggest that five qualities have been constants in the men who have most effectively fulfilled the oath of office. First, every successful president has had vision, insight, or understanding: a clear idea of

Native American Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Native American Culture - Essay Example They had a value system in place before being colonized, which consisted of four commandments; respect mother earth, respect the great spirits, respect our fellow man and woman, and finally respect for individual freedom. The last commandment was violated by the incoming Europeans as they took away their freedom and way of life. Health Care Beliefs In Native America, there is the belief that is centered on interconnectedness, meaning that everything on earth is connected and therefore has a spirit. Medicine refers to remedies, actions and any type of prayer used to honor the sacred being. From the Native American point of view, medicine is about curing the ailing person rather than healing, and the traditional healers oversee these operations with their aim being to make a person whole again. Traditionally, Native Americans are of the opinion that sickness is due to spiritual troubles, and if a person falls sick then the person is imbalanced, and his or her thoughts are negative. The healers believe that conditions, which are inherited from the parents to the child, are hard to treat and the main cause is an immoral lifestyle led by the parents. The main purpose of traditional healers is to restore an ailing patient back to a state of being whole, and a healthy and pure state of mind, body and soul. The healers combine rituals, religion, herbal medicine and spirituality to treat ailing people. Practices widely used by the traditional healers include the utilization of purifying methods, herbal remedies, symbolic healing and shamanism to clean the body and soul. In rituals, family and friends can be used to invoke the spirits to aid in the healing of the sick person. Natives seek the direction of medicine men and healers for spiritual purposes, and to be reassured about something, the place to go is to the traditional healers. The Native Americans use the modern medicine to treat the White man’s illness and use Indian medicine to treat Indian diseases. Ac cording to the American Indian people, every person on earth is here for a reason and when the reason is attained, the person dies. Upon a person’s death grieving is not held for a long time since it acts as an obstacle to the dead, as it prevents them from entering the new world. Differences of Health Care Beliefs The Native Americans believe in cooperating with one another to achieve any obstacle while the Americans competition reigns supreme; the principals of capitalism are applied. As a sign of respect, eye contact is not maintained in health institutions, and it becomes difficult to diagnose a patient. As sign of honesty and earnestness, eye contact is maintained and diagnosing a patient becomes easy with the Americans. To the Native Americans listening is preferred to speaking therefore; it becomes difficult to know what ails the patient. Emphasis is placed on expressing what a person feels among the Americans therefore the ailing person will communicate with the nurse s and doctors. According to Native Americans, emphasis is put on non-verbal communication and observation while the Americans emphasis is placed on communication, which is considered as very important since a patient is able to open up. Native Americans do not criticize the person administering the health services directly thus it becomes difficult to rectify ineffective situations in health facilities. Conversely, in the American culture, criticism is expressed directly, with the reason being that the patient

Workplace Violence in Health Institutions Term Paper

Workplace Violence in Health Institutions - Term Paper Example These guidelines include recommendations for recognizing risk factors, management commitment and employee involvement, work site analysis, hazard prevention and control, and safety and health training. Violence against Health Workers The levels of violence against healthcare staff have become a concern in recent years. More and more healthcare staffs face the prospect of violence and aggression in the workplace, not only from the people they care for, but from strangers and families. Although there is a high risk of work place violence across all healthcare occupations, most indicators suggest that it is the nursing profession that is most at risk, followed closely by ambulance and medical staff. (Linsley, 2006, pgs. 7-8) nurses are especially vulnerable to violence in high risk areas of practice such as the emergency department and psychatric settings (Dempski & Westrick, 2008, pg. 237) This paper seeks to addreses the spectrum of violent behaviors in health care, including violence directed horizontally or vertically between healthcare providers or violence focused on nurses from patients, families, and visitors. In addition, it will give a brief explanation of the types of violence experienced by nurses at their place of work, the risk factors, the various ways through which workplace violence affects the workers as well as the steps and measures which can be undertaken to reduce the impact and effects of workplace violence or minimize their chances of occurence and reoccurance. Types of Violence in Healthcare Settings Healthcare and social service workers for many years have confronted significant risks of job-related violence. Assaults in particular represent serious safety threats and health hazards for this field, and violence against... Healthcare and social service workers for many years have confronted significant risks of job-related violence. Assaults in particular represent serious safety threats and health hazards for this field, and violence against their workers increasingly continues to manifest. Healthcare settings are at risk for a variety of violent behaviours. Violence may be manifested as verbal abuse, sexual harassment, racial harassment, bullying, property damage, threats, murder, and physical assault. In 2000, almost half of all nonfatal injuries from violent acts against workers occurred in the healthcare sector. These injuries include, bruises, lacerations, broken bones, and head injuries. There are also other forms of violence such as lateral and horizontal violence which frequently occur in healthcare agencies. Lateral violence is a form of bullying, nurse to nurse, and is usually directed toward nursing staff perceived as less powerful. This includes bullying which encompasses barrage behaviour s which include being harassed, tormented, ignored, sabotaged, put down, and insulted among others. This form of violence is tolerated because many nurses experience it as a rite of passage and regard it as normal.Risk Factors. Health care providers, especially so, nurses deal with a greater than before risk of work-related physical attack. A number of factors have been identified as causal factors, while they do not cause violence directly, they have an impact on it and can enhance its effects.  

Oral Presentation on Drink Driving Essay Example for Free

Oral Presentation on Drink Driving Essay Intro: The topic I will be discussing today is a problem that occurs not only on Australian roads, but on roads worldwide. It is the topic of drink driving. I will be arguing why the Australian government should lower the Blood Alcohol Concentration limit to at least 0. 02 for full licenced drivers. Drink Driving is a serious offence that has MANY negative outcomes to it. Not only are you at risk of losing your licence, affecting day to day tasks and also receiving a heavy fine, but you are also putting yourself, your passengers and any person’s life, who is on the road, in DANGER. Paragraph 1: Each year on Victorian roads, approximately a quarter of drivers are killed or injured from drink driving related incidents where the driver has had a Blood Alcohol Concentration level of at least 0. 05 or greater. According to the Transport Accident Commission, with a blood alcohol concentration limit of 0. 05, the driver is already doubling their chance to be involved in an accident. At 0. 08 it is seven times the risk. At 0. 15, it is 25 times the risk. Statistics from the Transport Accident Commission have also shown that drink driving is most common between the ages of 17 to 25, promoting my main ARGUMENT that a person’s Blood Alcohol Concentration level should be at least 0. 02 which would significantly reduce the chance of an accident. Paragraph 2: Drinking Alcohol has a serious effect on our bodies. Drivers who drink alcohol before driving can be left with a loss of memory, blurred vision, slow reflexes, and lack of concentration and can also lead to dizziness. Drinking alcohol also increases self-confidence, which can lead the driver to feeling strong and invincible (LIKE SUPERMAN) . Look more:Â  problem solution speech essay Do you really want to be in a car with someone that can’t perform simple tasks such as reciting the alphabet or walking in a straight line? Each year Victoria Police breath tests over one point five million people. The government also exposes the public to many advertising campaigns through television about drink driving and its effects. An example includes the Transport Accident Commission advertisements that are shown regularly on television. Here is an example of one. [Drink Driving Advertisement 1 minute] Paragraph 2: In the commercial just shown, we witness some of the serious consequences that can take place as a result of drink driving, being serious injury, imprisonment, paraplegia and death. It goes to show a mother who has lost a son to drink driving, a woman killed by a drink driver, a man left paralysed after his drunk mate crashed the car he was in, and a drink driver entering jail. It shows the grief and loss families are left with, a sort of grief that no one should have to endure, especially because of one such reckless decision one decided to make, leading to the end of a life. Paragraph 3: I myself have lost a family member who was hit and killed by an intoxicated driver. He was not only a good and funny kid; he was a brother, a son, a nephew, a grandchild. I remember as a young child never seeing John again, I remember my family going through the grief, the in-denial, the anger, that someone so close to my family had died from such a careless and preventable act. It is hard to comprehend that someone you cared so much about has taken their last breath, smiled for the last time and is never coming back. It is something that no one should ever have to suffer. To see a mother and a father say goodbye to their young child is heartbreaking and inhumane to watch. Once again I hope that you understand that this is why the blood alcohol concentration limit should be lowered down to at least 0. 02. Many Australian experts and scientists believe that a blood alcohol concentration limit of 0. 05 is perfect and there is no need for it to be lowered. Experts argue that lowering it less than 0. 05 will do nothing in lowering deaths related to drink driving. But this is not the case. In two of the most developed and wealthy countries in the world, Sweden and Norway, the blood alcohol concentration limit is 0. 02. Drink driving is considered a very serious crime in Sweden and there is very little tolerance for alcohol. Laws where introduced in 1995 and 2001 in Sweden and Norway respectively which lowered the legal blood alcohol concentration limit to . 02 from the previous level of . 05. Since the blood alcohol concentration limit was changed, both Sweden and Norway have seen a dramatic reduction in deaths related to drink driving, some of the lowest rates in the world. I believe that by following the same lead set by Sweden and Norway we too in Australia can lower the amount of deaths related to drink driving significantly. Conclusion: Drink driving is something that takes place every day. Every day someone is involved, every day we are informed of it on the news, the radio, and through other various media outlets. Every day someone cries themselves to sleep, knowing they will never see that person again. I believe that by lowering the limit we can significantly reduce road trauma and the number of deaths related to drink driving. So, think, is that last glass really that important?

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay

Effectiveness Of Bottom Up And Top Down Environmental Sciences Essay Urban poor communities are becoming increasingly vulnerable to the effects of climate. This is due to many reasons, such as densely populated cities and poor housing structure. There are many ways to reduce the vulnerabilities of the urban poor to climate change. One of the key ways to deal with the impacts of climate change and thus increase resilience to climate change, is to adapt to these changes. This essay will focus on adaptation rather than mitigation, to enable a more detailed analysis of top-down verses bottom-up approaches. This is not to say that mitigation is not important or that adaptation should replace mitigation strategies. Rather that adaption is solely explored to better analyse which approach is best. This can be achieved either through bottom-up approaches or top-down strategies. Top-down usually refers to management at the city and national level such as municipal authorities. Bottom-up approaches are self-protection efforts made by households and communities t hemselves, based on local knowledge (OBrien et al 2006). However, there is no clear definition and often it can be uncertain where top-down starts and bottom-up begins. The aim of the essay is to evaluate whether a top-down or bottom-up approach is more effective to deal with the impacts of climate change on urban poor communities. In order to achieve this aim, the essay will be split into three main parts: part one will outline arguments that a top-down approach is most effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change, looking at approaches from within disaster risk reduction. However the second part will challenge this and explore debates that a bottom-up approach is more successful, through asset-based adaptation. On the other hand, the third part will argue that there is a need for a more participatory approach that incorporates local communities within top-down strategies, referred to as collaborative planning (Healy . The analysis will be supported by examples from current and past practices in the Global South. The conclusions reached areà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Part one: top-down The adverse effects of climate change are already evidentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦and developing countries are [the] most vulnerable. (World Bank 2003) Urban settlements in the developing world are beginning to face increasingly severe weather events as a result of climate change. Urban poor communities will be increasingly forced to cope with higher incidents of flooding, air and water pollution, and heat stress. Cities in developing countries are particularly at risk due to their high density populations, expansive informal settlements, poor land management and lack of infrastructure, such as adequate drainage channels (Tanner et al 2008). Thus, urban poor communities are one of the most vulnerable to the changes in climate. Bohle et al (1995) argues that to reduce vulnerability there needs be a reduction in the exposure of potentially harmful effects of climate change, an increased ability to cope with disasters and the process of recovery needs to be strengthened (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). One of the key ways of achieving all three of these aspects to reduce vulnerability is to adapt to the changes in climate and reduce the risk of disaster. This can be done through top-down approaches at the city or national level. In general, efforts to improve the ability of whole populations to recover from disasters are usually tackled through public policy intervention at the national scale. Thus, top-down approaches are needed to direct and implement adaptation strategies to increase resilience (Adger et al 2005b). The concept of resilience refers to the ability to persist and adapt in the face of climate shocks and stresses (Tanner et al 2008). This can be achieved through disaster risk reduction (DRR) which increases the resilience of local communities through reducing the vulnerability of people and property, better land management practices and improvement in preparedness. DRR includes hazard reduction, such as improving drainage, and preparedness for response and recovery s uch as insurance schemes. DRR involves building response capacity and managing climate risk (Sutanta et al 2008). National governments take the lead in identifying the dangers to communities and in developing strategies to cope with, and adapt to, changing circumstances. One of the ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is through disaster risk management (DRM). DRM refers to both disaster risk reduction (prevention, preparedness and mitigation) and humanitarian and development action (emergency response, relief and reconstruction). For example Tanner et al (2008) states that in Bikol region in the Philippines, there was access to safe land which reduces the disaster risk and increases the resilience of poor communities to climate change. This can only be achieved through top-down processes as city and municipal governments in developing countries are usually primarily responsible for infrastructure and service provision that is essential for the reduction of vulnerability to many environmental hazards (Tanner et al 2008). For example, Dodman and Satterthwaite (2008) point out that acti ons in Durban, one of South Africas largest cities, illustrate how top-down initiatives can increase the resilience of the urban poor in cities. The municipality has incorporated climate change into long-term city planning, addressing the vulnerability of key sectors in coastal infrastructure and disaster management (DRR). Furthermore, early warning systems are essential to reduce the impact of disasters and these are developed from the top-down, increasing the resilience of the urban poor to climate change related disasters. For example the Ningbo government in China, have established early warning systems using high-tech instruments. Tanner et al (2008) states that in 2005, when typhoon Kanu hit Ningbo, the government was able to reduce damage to the city by taking action earlier and evacuating thousands of people avoiding thousands of casualties (Tanner et al 2008). The vulnerability of the urban poor also depends on many factors that influence the amount of damage that a particular hazard can cause. There are different types of vulnerability, such as socio-economic fragility, which affect how resilient urban communities are to climate change (Cardona et al 2004). Assets held by individuals and households are influenced by external factors, such as government policies. Therefore, the efficiency of land administration and management can help build the adaptation capacity of poor people in urban areas. If land policies and management are simple and compatible with the urban poor, so the urban poor can access affordable land, then this will be one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Moser et al 2010). Stern (2007) argues that to develop resilient cities there needs to be an improvement in urban planning and provision of public services and infrastructure, which can only be achieved from the top-down (OBrien et al 2006). For example, in Indonesia, DRR has been integrated into spatial planning which has resulted in a reduction of vulnerability to natural hazards (Mitchell 2003). Moser et al (2010) also identifies politico-legal vulnerability, such as a lack of tenure rights. A lack of tenure rights means that communities face a lack of services and infrastructure, increasing their vulnerability to disasters. This relates to climate change-related issues as it means inhabitants have weak incentives to increase the resilience of the housing structures and as mentioned above, often live in the most hazardous sites. This can only be solved from a top-down perspective as programmes to secure tenure are not possible without government support. Thus, sustained political support is needed, as well as adequate urban planning methods and a substantial commitment of financial and human resources, which all come from the top-down. Moser et al (2010:56) argues that from a policy perspective clarifying tenure rights and developing coherent urban land policy frameworks is of the utmost importance for building resilience of the urban poor to negative climate change impacts. This also provides long term solutions to the impacts of climate change (Dodmam et al 2010). Linked to this, urban poor communities are vulnerable in that many live in extreme poverty. There are important linkages between urban poverty and vulnerability to disasters and climate change (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008). Carraro et al (2007) argues for the importance of considering climate concerns in the development context. Thus, one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change is to include adaptation and DRR within development goals, which can only be done from the top-down. Poverty eradication will increase the resilience of local communities to extreme climatic changes, while also addressing the underlying factors which may lead and/or have led to a disaster (Sutanta et al 2008). In Latin America, it has been common for some time to define disasters as failed development (OBrien et al 2006:70). As Schipper and Pelling (2006:29) argue, measures to mitigate the risk of disaster need to focus on reducing vulnerability within the context of development , thus the most effective way of addressing the risks posed by climate change and disasters is to lessen the underlying factors causing vulnerability to these phenomena. DRR is often given a low priority by national and international organisations and so for top-down strategies to be effective then measures to address climate change should be integrated with national development programmes (Wamsler 2009). Consequently, poverty reduction as well as adaptation from the top-down would be the one of the most effective ways to deal with the impacts of climate change (Stern et al 2007, Tearfund 2008). However, the second part of the essay will go on to explore arguments that bottom-up approaches are needed. Part two: Bottom-up On the other hand, top-down responses are often only seen through the lens of disaster. DRR only responds to disasters and does not take other climate change related issues into account. This presents a very partial picture of predominant patterns of weather changes and the sources of resilience of local communities. This is a key flaw Moser et al (2010) identified that urban populations in Kenya and Nicaragua were increasingly experiencing smaller, micro-level severe weather problems. These problems are not considered disasters by the major national institutions. Therefore, the adaptation needs of such communities are often ignored by national and international policy communities as the impacts are slow and incremental, but still have serious negative impacts for the majority of the worlds urban poor (Moser et al 2010). Dodman et al (2010) argue that DRR, driven from the top-down, alone is not effective to respond to climate change as it does not take into account the longer climati c changes. Thus community-based adaptation is an effective way to reduce the vulnerability of low-income groups. Bottom-up approaches are often seen as the most effective way to deal with the impacts of climate change because adaptation also responds to the slower changes in weather patterns. Bottom-up approaches to increase the resilience of poor communities by reducing the risk of disaster and adapting to changes in climate at the community, household and individual level. Dodman et al (2010) describes how Federations in the Philippines have been successful in working towards community-led saving schemes to improve housing, and thus reduce the vulnerability to disasters. Improving communities capacity to deal with climate change through DRR will also improve their ability to cope with future hazards (Tearfund 2008). Furthermore, creating policies to help reduce the risk of disasters will also improve opportunities more generally (Wisner et al 2004). Another way to increase resilience is to adapt assets such as housing to be more resilient to future weather events. One theoretical approach to respond to climate change is the asset adaptation framework. The framework focuses on asset vulnerability to climate change and identifies climate change adaptation from the bottom-up. These adaptations also work towards the slower changes in climate that affect the urban poor. Moser et al (2010) uses this framework to show how communities in Mombasa, Kenya and Estelà ­, Nicaragua are vulnerable to climate change in terms of individual assets such as human and social capital, and also in terms of household, small business and community assets such as financial and productive assets. Many poor communities in the Global South live in poorly constructed housing that is often self-built and unplanned, and thus provides little resilience to extreme weather events. Moreover, Yahya et al (2001) argue that in many developing countries, meeting gove rnment standards is impossible for many urban poor communities, forcing them to remain in self-built structures. This means urban poor communities often live in areas most at risk to natural hazards, such as flooding, because this is where either the land is cheapest or they live illegally. Thus, adapting assets to climate change at the community level is effective for dealing with the impacts of climate change. As part of the asset-adaptation framework identified by Moser et al (2010), adapting assets is one of the keys ways to reduce the vulnerability of the poor from the bottom-up, as individual assets, such as housing, were considered the most important aspects to building resilience. The key to the development of an asset-based adaptation framework therefore is the identification and analysis of the connection between vulnerability and the erosion of assets (Moser et al 2010:8) Assets therefore have a role in increasing the adaptive capacity of the urban poor. The asset adaptation framework identifies strategies to adapt assets to climate change. These strategies aim to build resilience, protect assets during extreme weather and rebuild them after such events. Moser et al (2010) found a variety of responses to the increasing severity of local weather patterns. For example in the city of Mombasa, inhabitants dug water passages in case of flooding, while small business owners constructed concrete walls to protect against flooding. As extreme weather events increase in frequency and intensity then solidly constructed housing becoming increasingly important. In Mombasa, most of the bottom-up responses to weather events revolved around adapting housing to reduce damage that would be caused by future weather events. They also protect assets during extreme weather events, such as in Mombasa they place sandbags in the doorways of houses during floods to limit the amount of damage. Communities also rebuild after such events, to ensure assets are resilient to future disasters. For example inhabitants in Esteli, replanted trees and plants, to reduce flood damage, while those living in Mombasa accessed weather forecasters which informed people of the occurrence of severe weather. These strategies have proved successful in dealing with the impacts of clim ate change, as they reduce damage to assets and thus reduce the vulnerability of the urban poor to future extreme weather events. Dodman et al (2010) also stated that asset adaptation at the community level were effective. They used examples from the Philippines, where community-based action is used in post disaster reconstruction of temporary and permanent housing and relocation. These strategies are effective when dealing with many aspects of climate change. Adger et al (2005a) argue that the most effect level of governance is bottom-up approaches. Rayner (2010) also argues that bottom-up strategies are best through improved adaptation to climate change. He argues that climate change policies should be designed and implemented at the lowest level. He also argues that approaches should focus on adaptation, which has the potential to bring real benefits to local communities. Adaptation is local in character and therefore a bottom-up approach. Part three: both On the contrary, Rayner (2010) also recognises that climate change is a multilevel governance problem. Therefore some aspects may need to be governed from the top down. However, it can be difficult to define which a top-down is and bottom-up approach and sometimes they overlap. Therefore, for policies to be most effective a combination of both should avoid confusion. As Tanner et al (2008) point out municipal governments in developing countries often do not have adequate provisions in order to deal with increased climate hazards such as flood management. The financial capacity of these governments is weak and often the division of tasks between different levels of government remains unclear, leading to inefficiencies. Therefore, adaptation at the community level is effective, but it still needs the support from local governments. The success of a strategy depends not on the scale but on how that action meets the objectives of adaptation, and how it affects the ability of others to meet their adaptation goals. Thus, the most effective way to adapt to the changes in climate would be a collaboration of both approaches. Developing countries should draw upon what Healey (1997) refers to as collaborative planning, which is the theory that local communities should be more involved and enlightened in decision making. The urban poor are often excluded fro m deliberations because of the informal nature of their communities and tenure arrangements, which generally lead to a level of invisibility and lack of voice in relation to all formal planning processes (Moser et al 2008). Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi (2008) recommend that combining top-down and bottom-up approaches will increase the effectiveness of policies. Therefore, the best method to reduce the impacts of climate change should be led from the top-down, to address issues such as poverty and politico-legal vulnerability, but should also include the interests of local communities. Involvement of poor and marginalised groups in decision-making will ensure a city can improve the conditions for those living in informal settlements or living in exposed locations (Dessai et al 2001). This has been achieved in Kerala, India, where political consciousness and awareness of rights and responsibilities is high at every level, resulting in a high turnout at elections. Kerala also has neighbour hood groups to represent the poor, which consist of 20-40 people who meet once a week to discuss problems in their communities and seek solutions (Tanner et al 2008). Schemes that work in isolation can often have negative impacts in the long term, and do not take into account wider effects and process. Dodmam et al (2010) points out that isolated activities in separate communities will be unable to meet broader goals without the support of local officials, and be unable to meet the adaptation needs of a large number of people (Hounsome and Iyer 2006). Combining governmental programs, NGO intervention and adaptation measures by local people to the problem of climate change will decrease the vulnerability of the urban poor (Nawrotzki and Oluwagbuyi 2008). A supportive legal system and local government is also important for supporting locally developed responses to achieve effective climate change adaptation (Dodman and Satterthwaite 2008, Satterthwaite et al. 2007). This will also help to strengthen antagonistic relationships between the urban poor and governments, as often adaptation activities may become perceived as a threat by informal settlers, and an excuse to evict them (Wilbanks and Kates 1999). In Mombasa, there is a lack of trust of governments outside agencies must gain the trust of local communities (Moser 2010, Bicknell et al 2009). Moser et al (2010) argues that if local communities are not involved then government policies will not be full informed as to what is best for the urban poor and may make their situation worse. Moreover, because changes in climate and an increase in extreme weather events will mostly negatively affect the urban poor, their participation in decision making is crucial for building resilience (Tanner et al 2008). Nour (2011) states that in Egypt, there has been a shift to incorporate local communities in urban upgrading and development interventions, for instance, there has been a community-based maintenance of local drains. There has been a joint responsibility of government agencies, the community and the private sector for garbage collection and the improvement of the environment. Nour (2011) argues that without community participation, attempts to achieve sustainable results are bound to fail. This therefore improves from top-down perspectives which are externally imposed and expert oriented. Roy and Ganguly (2009) state that participatory planning has been a success in West Bengal since the 1970s and this form of planning result in local people feeling ownership of these plans. Furthermore, the Stern Report (Stern 2007) argues that effective adaptation at the community-level, would include deliberation about actions being decided by communities rather than being imposed from above. There fore climate change adaptation should be in the form of multi-level governance (Bulkeley 2010). Community based strategies are often in isolation from one another and there is no overarching authority controlling them. Conclusion the conclusions reached are that top-down strategies are ultimately necessary, but that these must incorporate local communities priorities The conclusions reached are that a top-down approach that engages with local authorities and communities is the most effective. Top-down approaches need to also include support for local responses such as community-based adaptation. Local communities should be involved in higher decision making. Thus the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. In effect, the diversity of climate change means that the most appropriate adaptation responses will often be multi-level responses. (Adger 2005: 924) in the future there needs to be connected between responses at all levels. DRR should involve a large array of stakeholders, including local communities, NGOs, local and national governments, scientists, school communities, faith groups, private sector institutions, etc. Schipper and Pelling (2006). Disaster risk reduction is largely a task for local actors, albeit with support from national and international organisations, particularly in humanitarian action. efforts in Sri Lanka in response to the 2004 tsunami indicate that policymakers are not viewing the reconstruction phase as an opportunity to take into account the potential adverse effects of future climate change-induced sea-level rise in their plans, Reducing vulnerability is a key aspect of reducing climate change risk. . In reality, national governments will take the lead

Racial Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System | Essay

Racial Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System | Essay Abstract The importance of recognizing the fundamental concepts of issues in the Canadian criminal justice system is critical in the illustration of justice to minorities predominately Blacks and Aboriginal. Blacks and Aboriginals have been challenged socially, economically and politically. In examining the Canadian criminal justice system, it can be concluded there are many complications in attempting to justify the outcome of a case. It is imperative to recognize if the Canadian judicial system is simply responsible for the over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals in the justice system. This paper will further examine and critically analyze the flaws of the justice system. The processes of prosecuting an offender sometimes rely on the jurors. The importance of selecting jury needs to be further addressed. Thus, this paper will examine different aspects of the Canadian criminal justice system in relation to the existence of racial discrimination. The foundation of Canada was formed by the Aboriginals continuing to the colonial revolution to become a multicultural country. However the diverse races that are existent in Canada have been in conflict. Racism has lingered for countless years wherein complete abolishment will be unsuccessful providing marginalization and stereotypes are existent in society. It is noteworthy to recognize the race-related injustice minorities experience within the criminal justice system. Though the different systems and procedures in the criminal justice system are designed to protect society, minorities are often challenged with stigmatization. Evidence from the Canadian society indicates an over representation of minorities within the criminal justice system to the extent that there are concerns regarding wrongful convictions such as Donald Marshall, Jr. Prevalent oppression of these races lead to the failure of the justice system to be a reliable source of integrity to citizens, failing to build confidence. This paper will discuss the importance of fair and equal treatment in the justice system. The failure to recognize the injustice minorities encounter often results in the constant practice of systemic discrimination. Discriminatory practices such as racial discrimination and racial profiling are still prevalent within the Canadian Criminal Justice System. The significance of addressing this issue is having an impartial mindset in the judicial system when a minority is convicted. This issue can be addressed as systemic discrimination leading to the over representation of Black and Aboriginal in prisons in Canada. The key areas I will focus on are: the white dominated jury selection in trials involving minorities. I will examine if the criminal cases are a result of systemic discriminatory practices or if it is the complications within those cases. In addition I will also analyze the reason why there is an over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals within the Criminal Justice System and if Canada violates the legislated human rights identified under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and possibly the Criminal Code. This paper will consist of various studies conducted to examine whether racial discrimination is existent in society. Many studies have been conducted to determine if racial prejudice is present through arrests and court systems resulting in the over population of the prisons. In this paper I will analyze various sources of literature review, reports, articles, cases, theories and studies to enhance my arguments and persuade the reader to implement solutions to help reduce the partial treatment in all levels of the criminal justice system. By addressing the fundamental issue in society it raises awareness of the possible solutions that can be addressed. This is a topic of interest as I can relate as a minority. I hope to limit the partial practices in the Criminal Justice System. The analysis of criminal court cases such as R. v. Williams (1998), R. v. Khan (2004), R. v. Marshall (1971) will support my arguments regarding existing mistreatment of ethnic minorities with the Canadian criminal justice system. I will also discuss that stigmatization of blacks and Aboriginals are still prominent in todays society in the arrest and court processes. In this paper, I will explore why such injustice is still occurring and what actions can be taken to minimize stigmatization. I will draw attention to the various forms of injustice within the Canadian criminal justice system. Through analysis of particular cases I will draw attention to the types of discriminatory practice that exist. I will also make recommendation on how to bet ter address the existing racism problems within the current justice system as addressing such mal practices are vital in improving the justice system. Historical Concepts of Race: It is vital to consider the historical background of the racial backgrounds that will be focused on in this paper. It determines the fundamental cause of the problem today that affects many lives. It is imperative to recognize the aspects that will facilitate for a better understanding of the outcomes of cases. In addition this will confirm the challenges minorities have faced are still present today. Mosher (1998) has proven, The analysis of racial inequality in diverse historical contexts allows us to establish a perspective from which to view contemporary problems (p.28). Blacks in Canada As a result of colonialism, Canada has attracted immigrants from all over the world including blacks. In 2006, data collected through surveys concluded the black population increased to over three quarters of a million approximate 783,000 (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). Though the population increased significantly from the earlier years, the representation of blacks within the Canadian population remains at 2.5%. The black population in Canada fails to be equally scatter in population distribution, as a result only concentrated in specific cities. The migration of the black population is diversified from the country of origin with different composition of cultures, values and beliefs. The survey concluded Canadas black population suffers from economic and social disadvantage (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). The progress of multiculturalism in Canada through the colonial revolution significantly affected the black population. Historically dated, the prominent severe practice of slavery of black individuals was practiced in the United Stated and the Caribbean. Nonetheless, Canada also had some sort of involvement. It has been evident in the ownership of slaves by six legislators of Upper Canadas first parliament (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). This illustrates the foundation of collectively placing the black population in social disparity from the beginning. Thus, the impact of disadvantage continues to the present day. The poor treatment of white elites towards the black population often denied the basic rights of individuals. The stigmatization of blacks led to segregation in school as well as public life along with limitations of owning properties (Winks, 2008). The hostile treatment of the white population towards blacks was very explicit in comparison to todays society. Although issues of racial discrimination have been addressed it is still implicitly prominent today. Stereotypical views The historical perspective of the blacks in Canada can further illustrate the root of the problem of society today. The beliefs and stereotypes that have been the first perspective of whites towards the black population have been instilled in individuals continuing to carry those set of beliefs. According to a recent survey, results have shown one third of the Canadian population report being at least slightly racist (Leger, 2007). The mentality that has been created about the black population being socially and economically underprivileged has found a way to make members of society believe they are continually being stigmatized. On the earlier years, whites have always had the upper hand in contrast to blacks, this has implicitly continued by examining the members of the criminal justice system from the police system to the members of the judiciary. As racial discrimination has formed in various ways from the beginning, it has had adverse affects on the black population of todays so ciety and the law. Thus, the mentality from the slavery days have evolved and integrated into the justice system, affecting the method of serving justice to blacks. The issue of racial discrimination in Canada is a controversial topic. In contrast, the most common explicit evidence of racial discrimination is racial profiling evident through anecdotal accounts. The debate in Canada consists of the scepticism of the general public with focus on systemic discrimination that exists in the justice system and if there is equal access to services offered within the Canadian criminal justice system (Wortley, 2003). Canada in comparison to the United States lacks the resources for empirical evidence to further assess the amount of racial discrimination in the justice system. However, the minimal research conducted has evidently illustrated the prevalence of discrimination within the black and First Nation group of minorities. Indigenous First Nations suffered through a devastating history however one may not assume it has been completely stopped. Surprisingly, in the present day the mistreatment of police forces or other authoritative figures have not simply justified fair and equal treatment. Many scholars have attempted to study the relationship of the treatments of the criminal justice system through the communication processes (Roberts, Doob, 1997). Historically, Aboriginals were seen as a barrier to colonization and progress, as an outcome they were subject to unjust treatment and were forced to assimilate into Canadian life. They were also subject to convert from red men to white this was accomplished by forcing them into residential schools where they suffered a tremendous amount of torture (Dickson-Gilmore, 2005). During this process, First nations have been stripped away of culture: they were forced to surrender land and degraded to the reserves while they were prohibited to have an Aboriginal model of family, social life and spirituality (Dickson-Gilmore, 2005). As Indigenous have been rejected culturally, socially and politically it is a contributing factor to why society has stereotypical views. As the mandatory placement of Aboriginals on reserves, it has resulted in the constant use of drugs and alcohol as they are excluded from the rest of society. Aboriginals have suffered through a disadvantaged past from being stripped of all kinds of identity and being put aside into the reserves. It is very easy to stereotypically judge an individual. Players in the criminal justice system are also humans and are aware of the historically disadvantaged past of the First Nations. The assumption all Aboriginals are the same can affect the outcome of cases wherein an Aboriginal is involved. The stigmatization that has been established about the Indigenous continues to prevail in society today as it is evident in the criminal justice system. Media The media has become a significant influence on the general public. From the television shows, movies and news it has managed to instil certain information, perceptions in the heads of its viewers and/or listeners. Prominently, the media will portray all the negative characteristics of a certain race which leads to the creation of stereotypes. Studies have shown the biasness of the Canadian media and the unfairness of media representations (Mahtani, 2001). Considerably, the media is a powerful medium to deliver knowledge to the public, selecting certain images of minorities to govern the publics perspective (Fleras and Kunz, 2001). As a result, pessimistic representation of minorities includes stereotypes and beliefs such as: threatening, deviant, and irrelevant to the construction of the nation. The negative traits of minorities depicted in the media automatically become the everyday perception of the public. It is rare to see minorities on a television show, however if they are fea tured on a show they are depicted as criminals or deviant (Mahtani, 2001). Thus, the images or the actions/role of a minority depicted in the media is considered one sided portrayals or articles become reality in the minds of Canadians (Fleras and Kunz, 2001) in addition to confirmation of the stereotypes already created. The media often creates a picture of poor black men involved in drugs or violence. Chances of a successful black man being featured in a news broadcast have decreased in the likelihood. The media generates a subliminal message of stereotyping black men. Focusing on a particular race stories emphasizing certain characteristics and eventually transfers those characteristics into a social norm (Fleras and Kunz, 2001). In addition, Aboriginals who have claimed the land of Canada primarily are also portrayed as alcoholics and violent individuals facilitating in the general stereotypes. These stereotypes are consumed in individual beliefs including the police and judicial system. According to Scot Wortley and Akwasi Owusu-Bempah (2010) media analyses have depicted Black people in Canada have a heightened chance of being portrayed as criminal offenders rather than victims. The Black population have often complained regarding the news media and other forms of popular culture (film, music, etc.) about the portrayal often enhancing the stereotypes that already exists. This depiction of the particular race usually places a strain on the treatment of the members of the criminal justice system. Scot Worley (2002) has performed extensive research within the Toronto star. In his findings, he discovered almost half of all stories depicting Black people are related to crime and violence, in comparison to 14% of its counterparts of white victims. In addition to the results, he also found that white victims received more media coverage than Black victims. These biases of large mediums affect an individuals sub consciousness. Treatments of minorities According to Nelson (2004), extensive research of the differential treatment of Aboriginals has been ongoing historically to present. A summarization of the results consists of similar cases of confrontations between first nations and the police due to harassment, racism or aggressiveness through force to restrain the fighting of Aboriginal groups for treaty rights and land claims. Government has imposed solutions in an attempt to reduce incarceration rates for First Nations. The method of restorative justice is encouraged to decrease the over representation of Aboriginals in the entire Criminal Justice System (Nelson, 2004). In addition, scholars have also studied the perception of police and interactions with the black community. Henry Hastings (1996) has conducted a research of how criminal activities are racialized resulting in the confirmation of negative perceptions affecting the treatment of blacks in the criminal justice system. Chart above (Wortley Owusu,-Bempah, 2009, Unequal before the law: Immigrant and Racial Minority Perceptions of the Canadian Criminal Justice system: http://www.springerlink.com/content/036768l1221r238m//fulltext.html#Fig2): Percent of respondents who believe that a black person would receive a harsher sentence than a white person convicted of the same crime The chart above is a depiction of the confidence of the general public in the justice system. As previously mentioned, the perceptions of society towards the Black population have not changed. As a result a survey has been conducted based on perception of three major ethnicities: White, Chinese and Black. The public beliefs of mistreating Blacks had forced the police enforcement to implement the idea of designing strategies to eliminate or reduce the belief of targeting racial minorities. An action plan of recruiting minority groups in the police force has been implemented. Evidentially, these anti-racism programs have not been well examined, due to the significant amount of increase still prevalent in this survey. Stenning (2003) has stated, if such efforts are effective, perceptions of racial bias in policing and the courts should have decreased significantly over the past 10 to 15 years. Racial Profiling A prominent form of racial discrimination is racial profiling. Evidence of surveys conducted still find racial profiling to be a common problem. An academic literature definition of racial profiling is defined as: significant racial differences in police stop and search practices, significant racial differences in Customs search and interrogation practice and particular under or sting operation which target specific racial/ethnic communities (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010, p.17). Various studies conducted in the United States, Great Britain and Canada have all concluded that Black people have an increased chance of being stopped, questioned and search by the police (Tanovich, 2006). This issue has been brought to the attention of the Ontario Human Rights Commission in 2003 with a compilation of detailed testimonial from over 800 individuals in Ontario with a majority composition of black felt they have been a victim of racial profiling. If racial profiling exists it is evident that rac ial discrimination also exists and is somewhat visible in the justice system. Racial profiling within in the society by police, at every level of the justice system influences the statistical information of minorities in the Canadian criminal justice system. Players in the Criminal Justice System The explanation of the over representations of black and Aboriginals in the criminal justice system can simply be explained through the thorough analysis of the judicial system. Canada was originally established in a Eurocentric focus presently continuing justifying the flaws of the criminal justice system and the ignorance towards minorities. The limited representation of minority in the judiciary contributes to the factor of the lack of recognition of minority needs. Essentially, it is vital to implement affirmative action in the courts to avoid stigmatization of race (Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, 1995). In addition, in the event of final decisions in court, majority of jurors selected are of a white decent while the criminal offender is often black or Aboriginal with programmed stereotypes. As a result, jury decisions often incarcerate blacks and Aboriginals creating the over representations in prisons. By examining the judicial system it is easy to conclude the racial consistency is prominently white males. This reflects not only the European colonization in early years but the current patriarchal society. According to Hamalengwa (2003), a white lawyer had stated, bringing the racial animus in a criminal case will alienate the judge, police, prosecutors and the jury, all of whom are most likely White and will likely ensure a conviction (p.9). The credibility of this statement is accurate as it is a primary source. When the issue of race is raised in the court systems, it is often denied the attention and action for equal justice of minority groups such as Aboriginals and Blacks Police According to Parker et al (2005), there has been sufficient evidence to conclude police have an increased likelihood of making arrests in cases involving whites compared to non white victims as well as scenarios with a white victim and a black offender. These results show that whites are much more favourable within the justice system emphasizing on the higher value placed on them in comparison to blacks. Further analytical examinations of police biasness of whites during arrests have been studied. In Toronto during the period of 1996 throughout 2001 there have been 10,000 arrests involving drug possessions which was composed of 38% of black suspects and 23% whites. All accused persons were taken to the police station for report processes. However accused white individuals were likely to be discharged in contrast to black individuals who were most likely to be detained overnight for a bail hearing. As there is an overwhelming over representation of Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system, over and under policing contribute to these statistics (Rudin, 2005). Over policing refers to the practice of policing targeting people of particular ethnic or racial backgrounds or people who live in particular neighbourhoods (Rudin, 2005, p.1). This results in the police structuring a different approach towards Aboriginals with the assumption they are violent, dangerous and more likely to be involved in criminal activity. In contrast to the over policing, Aboriginals are underrepresented to being victims by police. This a reflection of the government who often disregard the Aboriginal rights claims and ignore the suffering they continue to experience (Rudin, 2005). Though there have been collective efforts to strategically reduce racial bias in the justice system, it is still questionable whether it is actually effective. One of the approaches that has been recently been put in effect is minority recruitment. It is the idea of hiring minorities to diversify policing and the other sectors of the justice system (Stenning, 2003). Results of this strategy have improved in diversifying the police. In 1994, the police force was composed of 6% minority members compared to the significant increase in 2009 to 19% (Wortley McCalla, 2008). Diversity has evidentially been proven to exist as the two out of the four Deputy Chiefs are black as well as the September 2009 graduates reported to have been the most multicultural class of recruits (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). As the police are creating a racially diversified environment there is no guarantee that minority members are free of racial discrimination in the work force. The problem of racial discrimination will be difficult to completely eradicate, considering the historical aspects of Canada and the existence continuing into the workforce. Police are a vital variable to consider when dealing with the racial background of one of the primary source for arrests and convictions. As mentioned previously, the police force had been historically composed of a majority of white racial background until recently creating bias to those minorities from internalized beliefs. Jurors Critical Race Theory was created in the 1970s acknowledging racism adopting the ideology from the United States. It is a socially constructed concept attempting to show the structure of law including antidiscrimination law accommodating and facilitating racism (Aylward, 1999). The implication of the Critical Race Theory intensifies the application of power within the criminal justice system. Initially, the aims and objectives of the Critical Race Theory emphasizes on race and power. It fundamentally deconstructs society by categorizing racial hierarchies. However, the recognition of racism reproduces inequality, further minimizing minority rights. The concept deconstructs position of minorities while reconstructing juror bias (Aylward, 1999). In the Canadian context critical race theory is often applied to the races that are more prominent to racial discrimination, Blacks and First Nations. Jury Selection In addition, the jury selection process is most likely to reflect the judiciary representation. National Law Journal conducted a study containing a sample of 800 jurors, 42% were White jurors in contrast to the 25% of Black jurors teaming up with the police officers rather than defendant present in the case (Hamalengwa, 2003). In circumstances of cases wherein race is involved, it is often a minority attempting to indict a representative of the criminal justice system such as the police with an all white jury. The study observed that jurors are more biased by empathizing with victims of their own race and lenient of defendants of the same racial background (Hamalengwa, 2003). Thus, to achieve an equal administration of justice it is essential to select a racially mixed jury. In the case of R. v. Williams jury selection depicted the flaws of the criminal justice system. Victor Daniel Williams, an Aboriginal accused of a robbery charge denied accusations. At the primary trial, the judge permitted questions posed to potential jurors. As a result of this, the Crown had applied for a mistrial on the basis of procedural errors and the unfortunate publicity of the jury selection process (R. v. Williams, 1998). At the second trial the judge had dismissed any motion from the accused. In conclusion of this trial the court had admitted to the widespread of discrimination against First Nations within the community. In cases where the defendant believes the jury might have prejudiced towards the particular race such as Aboriginal, the prosecution and defence have the right to challenge potential jurors for cause on the ground of partiality (R. v. Williams, 1998). Questions the defendant may ask the potential jurors whether they have already possess a prejudice towards the racial group altogether if so, if it is possible for the jurors to make decisions without the bias they posses. The case was a lengthy process of arguing why the jurors were questioned as it is presumed that jurors will function without biasness. Counter arguments have stated it if the prejudice of society is widespread how are the jurors able to remove it for the trial defeating the purpose of section 638(1)(b) (R. v. Williams, 1998). As the case concluded, extensive bias continues to uphold against Aboriginals. In contrast, British Columbia and the attending judge held the evidence was not sufficient to determine potential ju rors prejudiced. The R. v. Williams case has depicted the outcome of jury bias. However, this could be further prevented if the jury selection process was racially mixed with different backgrounds and a variety of perspectives. The outcome of the case would differ greatly. This case could be referred back to the stereotypes instilled in individuals. The general public assumes Aboriginals and prisons are constantly correlated. The implication of this stereotype can be further expanded to the uncivilized and lack social and moral order essential in society (R. v. Williams, 1998). In the case of R. v. Williams jury selection depicted the flaws of the criminal justice system. Victor Daniel Williams, an Aboriginal accused of a robbery charge denied accusations. At the primary trial, the judge permitted questions posed to potential jurors. As a result of this, the Crown had applied for a mistrial on the basis of procedural errors and the unfortunate publicity of the jury selection process (R. v. Williams, 1998). At the second trial the judge had dismissed any motion from the accused. In conclusion of this trial the court had admitted to the widespread of discrimination against First Nations within the community. In cases where the defendant believes the jury might have prejudiced towards the particular race such as Aboriginal, the prosecution and defence have the right to challenge potential jurors for cause on the ground of partiality (R. v. Williams, 1998). Questions the defendant may ask the potential jurors whether they have already possess a prejudice towards the racial group altogether if so, if it is possible for the jurors to make decisions without the bias they posses. The case was a lengthy process of arguing why the jurors were questioned as it is presumed that jurors will function without biasness. Counter arguments have stated it if the prejudice of society is widespread how are the jurors able to remove it for the trial defeating the purpose of section 638(1)(b) (R. v. Williams, 1998). As the case concluded, extensive bias continues to uphold against Aborginals. In contrast, British Columbia and the attending judge held the evidence was not sufficient to determine potential jur ors prejudiced. Though, the case itself was based on the conviction of robbery, it is imperative to note and understand the trials by judge and jury as there is an increased likelihood the outcome of the case is based on systemic discriminatory practices. Systemic Discrimination It is not surprising to see the prominent race in Canadian prisons consists of the minority groups that are often faced with obstacles. Both Blacks and Aboriginals have suffered through a disadvantaged history mirroring the result of how they function in society leading them to prison. However, as these groups are prone to committing more criminal activities in comparison to other races, the partial verdicts of judges and jurors are significantly influenced. Hence, it results in the over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals in Canadian prisons. Canadian Prison System The table below illustrates statistics of the composition of the Canadian prison system. It can be concluded through examination of the charts that Aboriginals and Blacks have the greatest amount of incarceration into prisons. The general population of Blacks and Aboriginals composed in society compared to the ratio that are incarcerated have significant differences and make up majority of incarcerated individuals. The over representations of these particular races in the prison system can cause the general population to question the justice system. Inevitably, factors to consider when analyzing this chart include the consideration of the actual crime committed or the injustice of the courts to properly provide justice to offenders due to racial bias or discrimination. R. v. Marshall (1971) Donald Marshall was an average seventeen year old. As a youth, it is more likely to get in trouble with the law for petty crimes such as consumption of alcohol or smoking. He was the typical young man who would break the law and participate in underage drinking and smoking. He was walking down the street and coincidentally had an encounter with one of his friends whom was African Canadian. The two individuals were involved in a conversation until two other gentlemen from across the street decided to ask for a lighter. As youths it is also most likely individuals are more violent. As a result one of the two males had stabbed Marshalls friend resulting in his death the very next day (R. v. Marshall, 1971). Marshall was not arrested long after the incident. Shortly, he was arrested and charged with murder with a three day trial. He was then acquitted as were the police in his arrest. The police had strongly believed Marshall was responsible for his own conviction and miscarriage of justice was visible. As years passed, the man who actually committed the crime was charged with manslaughter sentenced in prison for 3 years. A Royal Commission had identified Marshall as a victim of wrongful convictions. Marshall was then compensated a total amount of $700, 00.00 upon his release for wrongful convictions (R. v. Marshall, 1971). In this case of wrongful convictions, the integrity of police discretion can be questioned. There are many factors that have resulted in the wrongful conviction. Though everyone posses internalized beliefs, the criminal justice system should attempt to avoid partial judgements. In careful investigation and examination of this case, there is a great possibility of avoiding the problem. It is imperative for the criminal justice system to reduce judgements based on colour. Lack of analysis in cases are leading to the over representations of minorities such as Blacks and First Nations in the prison system. Systemic discrimination exists in society and addressing the problem should facilitate in reducing the problem. As the historical perceptions of social disparities of the black and indigenous population of Canada continue to be a factor in being racially discriminated, it is vital to recognize the foundation of systemic discriminatory practices in the Canadian Crimin Emirates Stadium: Project Management Emirates Stadium: Project Management 1.0. Introduction The PMI defines project management as ‘the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources through the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve pre-determined goals of scope, cost, time, quality and participant satisfaction (Smith 2002) â€Å"Through the project management process, business needs and requirements are transformed into deliverables or outputs the project will provide to meet; this transformation process is made up application of constraints such as time, cost, quality, motivation and application of project management tools and technique.†(APM 2002) According to Dinsmore, and Cabanis-Brewin (2006), project management processes are grouped into the following areas: they are initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling and closing. A good project manager must be skilled in applying this knowledge and be able to integrate these activities as the project moves through its life cycle. The aim of this report is to critically evaluate the project management challenges and the management approaches in the construction of Emirate Stadium described in the groups presentation. Some of the challenges identified in group discussions includes; time constraints, planning approval, design and site constraints, procurement path, organizational/stakeholders management..This report compares some of the identified challenges with the established best practice in project management. The second part of the report is develop guideline for the 2012 Olympic Stadium which will include an overview of the difference between managing a single, simple project and a project that is part of a large complex programme of work, also to outline the project management challenges of the 2012 Olympic Stadium. 2.0 The Emirates Stadium 2.1 Background of the Emirate Stadium complex The need to generate additional revenue from the football event and also to provide a state- of the- art facilities for the fans is identified as the requirement for a new football stadium to replace the existing one .by Arsenal Football Club The Emirate Stadium is located in Holloway in London Borough of Islington town. The stadium is located in a high density residential area therefore restricting feasibility of increase capacity. Over 2000 new homes were built in Islington as part of the project. Two of the key points in the club brief to design team were for the pitch to be as good as Highbury, and to create an exhilarating stadium atmosphere through the design. Over 2,500 legal documents were signed in order to give the project full clearance. The overall project put at about 390million pounds. . It was opened in July 2006, with seated capacity of 60,432 making it the fifth largest football stadium in the UK 2.2 Main Project management challenges identified by different groups Based on the group presentations some of the main project management challenges identified include: * Time constraints, * Planning and consent approval, * Design and site constraints, * Procurement path, * Organizational/stakeholders management * Document control 2.3 Some of the management approaches considered by the group include; * Involving contractor in early stage of the process * Design and Build contract * Site investigation * Collaborating planning and possible overlap during construction to meet deadline * Several procurement path * Involvement of the stakeholders * Redesigning to suit the shape of the site * Understanding of the scope of the project. 2.4 Evaluation of project management challenges and approach in the group work 2.4.1. Involving contractor in early stage of the process. This can help in integrating the contractors idea and expertise in the planning and design process, although, Austin, Baldwin and Wasket (2000) identified that it might result in uneven design workload while they wait for consultant and other contractors to develop their own design, this result in the client paying for retainer while the project is yet to start, thereby increasing the cost of the project. Therefore it might be beneficial to delay the introduction of contractor early 2.4.2 Time constraints It can be seen that in the case of Emirate stadium, delivering the project on time is very crucial; to enable the club to meet up with football season, Harrison and Lock (2004) stated that delivery a project on time is an extremely important objective to client as well as avoiding the risk of being skimped in respect of quality and reliability of being close to the budget but most time all the objective of the project cannot be met. 2.4.3 Planning and consent approval. Two sets of people are involved in planning; they the client and the contractor .Obtaining the consent approval and satisfying planning requirement as well as defining the project goals, ensure availability of funds and selecting the design is the primary responsibility of the owner, this is one aspect that group presentations did not consider. On the side of the contractor, proper planning and scheduling contributed to their delivering the project on time. 2.4.4 Contract /procurement strategy The contract strategy used in the construction of Emirate Stadium is identified as Design and Build. The type of contract is assumed to be the best when time constraint is considered, Rowlison and McDermontt (1999) reported that Design and Build approach involving overlapping of design and construction phases leads to economics and fast project, though the client has to limit the variation to minimum , finds evaluation difficult and also have to make early decisions. However, Aritua, Bower and Turner (2006) reported that Design and Build procurement options has been criticized for being cost rather than design quality driven. Chan and Yu-Ann 2005 identified design liability as the most important practical problem encounters in design and build system. 2.5 Best practice in project management The best practices in project management are those practices that are generally agreed that their application in the project has shown to enhance the chances of success over a wide range of projects. (PMBOK, 2004) Atkinson (1999) queried, if successful project management means doing something right, that result in a project which was implemented on time, within cost and to a quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the customers, not liked by the sponsors and does not seem to provide either improved effectiveness or efficiency for the organization Kerzner (2006) affirmed that best practices in project management are those actions or activities undertaken by the company or individual that led to a sustained competitive advantage, it can be learned from both failure and success. Defining project objective at the outset and establishing relative importance of these objectives is crucial (Smith 2002). The Primary objectives of the project are usually measured in terms of time cost and quality, whilst it may be possible to meet one or two of the objectives, meeting all three of them is almost impossible. (Smith, 2002). However, the general knowledge, skills and processes described in general agreement documents of project management should not always be apply uniformly to all projects, the project manager and the team is responsible for determining the appropriate process and tailored it down to suit the specific project, because every project is unique on its own. (PMBOK, 2004) 3.0 The 2012 Olympic Stadium complex 3.1 The background of the 2010 London Olympic Stadium. The 2010 London Olympic Stadium is located at the south of Olympic park Stratford, East London. The EDAW consortium working with Arup and Atkins was appointed by Olympic delivery Authority (ODA) to develop the master plan and the design of the Olympic Park, while the design of the Olympic venue or the Athletes Village was tendered separately. In 2007, The Olympic Delivery Authority Signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the consortium known as Team Stadium to design and build the Olympic Stadium. The consortium is made up the designer, Hoks sport. Main contractor Sir Robert McAlphine, structural engineer Burro Happold, service engineer and landscape designer. The project was estimated at 498miliion pound. The stadium consists of a lower tier of 25000 permanent. Seats set into the landscape with an upper tier of 55000 temporary seats. The sunken bowl built into the ground will contain the field of play and lower permanent seating. However, facilities for athletes within the Stadium include changing rooms, medical support facilities and an 80m warm-up track. Spectator services, refreshments and merchandise outlets will be located outside the venue on a ‘podium that will surround the Stadium, rather than being located within the Stadium itself. Constructions began three months ahead of schedule and it is expected to be completed by 2011. In addition, construction works in other parts of the Olympic village is still on-going, while some are close to completion, others are yet to start. This is based on the planned milestone schedule set out by the Olympic Delivery Authority., According to the chairman of the Olympic Delivery Authority, some completion date has been moved further, this is to avoid the venue been completed and standing idle in the years before Olympic, as this call for additional cost of maintenance. (Culled from official site of 2012 Olympic). 3.2. The outline of the Olympic Stadium â€Å"People will be able to see with their own eyes a stadium which is designed to be different: an innovative and sustainable design which uses temporary elements to meet a complex brief, a stadium built for both Games and legacy†.(Olympic Delivery Authority Chairman John Armitt). The design of London 2012 Olympic Stadium is much more than dazzling or ‘out of this world Architectural structure that is norm of modern day Olympic stadium. â€Å"The emphasis in the design has been on minimizing the quantity of material, whilst still producing the required performance, ensuring the sustainability of the stadium after the games give rise for incorporation of some temporary structures. However, design and construction of such large and complex project need effective and efficient management to deliver the agreed scope of the project. The management approach in multi-projects is generally different from single project. Flexibility management process with explicitly define rules and procedure can be a source of success with large complex project. (Dietrich and Lehtonen 2005). Baccarni (1996) defined project complexity as project that consists of varied interrelated parts and be operationalised in terms of differentiation and interdependency .On the hand Coffman believed that complex project comprises of subset of project that are composed of so many different facets that no individual or small team possesses all of the knowledge, experience, or skills required to design and implement them. Considering 2012 Olympic Stadium as a part of Olympic park which consists of interrelated and multidisciplinary projects that demand exceptional level of management and system approach which will be described to be inappropriate for a single project Looking at the technical and organizational complexity of the Olympic park, it is clear that it requires involvement of lots of multi-disciplinary contractors, sub contractors, supply chain, trade, different technology and specialties. Williams (1999) sees technical complexity as a three-fold concept: the variety of task as the degree of interdependencies within these tasks, and the instability of the â€Å"assumptions upon which the Tasks are based.† Complex project requires proper structuring and scheduling in terms of Work Break down Structure and further down into related bid package for the qualified construction firms .to bid .For effective organizational management, the services of a planner, scheduler, contract administrato r, legal adviser, procurement engineer, accountant will be require in a complex project unlike a single project where all the task will be handle by the project management.. Moreover, managing a large, multi-projects environment or complex projects is refers by some author as programme management, Fern(1991), stated that the common theme of programme management can be identified as the co-ordination of projects to gain benefits that it would not be possible to obtain were the projects managed independently. He also defined programme management as the coordinated support, planning, prioritization and monitoring of projects to meet changing business needs. Pellegrinelli(1997) pointed out that programme management is not same as multi-project management, that the nature and practice of program management are much more than resource management though management of scares resources or the establishment of appropriate information system is identified as core elements of programme management. Fern (1991), proposed single objective programme model as one of the generic models to describe how organizations define and practice programme management. According to Fe rn (1991), programme with single objective are often called macro-project or simple project which consists of large numbers of project which run concurrently, often employ large numbers of contractors and can benefit from programme management techniques. Furthermore, the differences between managing a simple project and a project that is part of a large complex programme, can be identify in the description of project and program by Pellegrinelli(1997) and Fern (1991), which states that project is a group of related task(activities) which together satisfy one or more objectives, while programme is a frame work for grouping existing projects (or defining new projects) and for focusing all the activities required to achieve a set of major benefits. Some of features of managing a simple single project include project manager been responsible for directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives, while a large complex programme involves having a programme manager facilitates the interaction of other managers and team manager responsible for work package. In addition, a single simple project have a set objective and self dependent for delivery, which entails, ensuring that trade-offs between scope, quality, time and cost are satisfactory and acceptable(Wideman,1990), while multi-project is interrelated and interdependent with other project in the programme. Significant increase in the number and independence of element between disparate project within a programme raise structural complexity to a level higher than that of single projects (Blismas et al 2004) A single project has a linear life cycle and fixed duration in which performance of the project is measured; while in multi-project duration depends on the delivery of the entire project in the programme Single project involves one main contractor with few sub contractors while multi-project involves large number of contractor, sub contractors and supply chain. Other features of a single project includes managing risk and uncertainties in line with the project scope and objectives, abbreviated planning process and Single client management In addition, scheduling and resources allocated is more complex than that of a single project the need and priority of a particular project is considered, detailed communication, organization and strategic management, multi-stakeholders management, development of software for project planning/scheduling and system control. 3.3. GUIDELINES FOR 2012 OLYMPIC STADIUM The purpose of these guidelines is to help in organizing, planning and control 2012 Olympic Stadium to achieve the project objectives. The guideline covers the life cycle of the project from initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and controlling and closure of the project. 3.3.1 Initiation * This is the beginning of the planning phase, the need is identified, resources, preliminary drawing and block diagram is produce, analysis including budget estimation, project charter including cost, task, and deliverable schedule, scope is defined and impact assessment initiated, conceptual design created followed by detailed design and planning 3.3.2 Project planning This include developing management Plan, scope planning and definition, creating a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), activity definition and sequencing, Resource estimating and allocation, Estimating budget and cost control, activity duration estimating, schedule development, human resource and communication planning, risk management planning, contracting, purchases plan (PMBOK, 2004) * Management Plan: is necessary for the development of preliminary project scope statement, project management processes, environmental factors and organizational process assets. (PMBOK, 2004) Scope planning and definition is essential for creating project scope management plan that documents how the project scope will be defined, verified and controlled and also the creation and definition of WBS. Secondly development of detailed scope statement as basis for future project decisions. (PMBOK, 2004) * Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): â€Å"Developing WBS with a corresponding project organizations and functional responsibility chart (Wideman,1990) Establishing the programme work breakdown structure and breaking it into work package for contract purposes†. (Wideman,1990) Activity definition and sequencing is crucial in identifying specific activities that needs to be performed to achieve project deliverable and also identifying and documenting dependencies among schedule activities. It contains the activity list and attributes, milestone list, requested change and approved change requests project schedule network diagram. (PMBOK, 2004) * Resource estimating and allocation is important in estimating the type and quantities of resources required by each work package * Estimating budget and cost control: Each work package is treated essentially as a separate and autonomous effort requiring resources and input from variety of source (Clough et al, 2000).†At the earliest possible time, an acceptable program budget breakdown must be established, which properly reflects the best estimate of the work required to achieve the overall project objectives. This will form the basis for regular cost monitoring and reporting† (Wideman, 1990) * Contracting, purchases plan: Laws and regulations will require public bidding procedure in the government owned project. Advertisements of the project are required to ensure that all contractors who might have interest are offered equal opportunity to bid. A number of work packages may be assembled into a contract package for procurement purposes(Wideman,1990) Type of contract strategy and procurement route to be use and allocation of risk of project is identified * Human resource and communication planning: this is necessary in identifying and documenting roles and responsibilities and reporting relationships, secondly. Information and communication needs of the projects stakeholders are determined. (PMBOK, 2004) * Risk management: The purpose of risk management process is to make effective project management decisions about what happens on the project in future. This consist of risk source identification, risk impact assessment and analysis and managerial response to risk in the context of the project (Smith, Merna, Jobling, 2006) 3.3.3 Execution stage This involves coordinating people and resources, integrating and performing other project activities. Some of the activities of this stage include Directing and managing project execution, performing quality assurance, acquiring and developing project team, information distribution. Selection of consultant, supply chain contractors and sub contractors. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Directing and managing project execution. This process is necessary for directing the various technical and organizational interfaces that exist in the project to execute the work defined in the project management plan. Some of the activities here consist of approving corrective and preventive actions, approving change request and defect repair, validating defect repair, administrative closure procedure. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Acquiring and developing project team: this is essential for obtaining human resources needed to deliver the project and also for improving the competencies and interaction of team members to enhance project performance. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Information distribution: design and foster intensive, open and timely communication within the project stakeholders. Employ multiple channels and mediums, in particular modern information technology and extensive face-to face interactions. Prepare systems that prescribe for most processes simple and brief procedures for flexibility of details. Restrict optimization to the essential. * Selection of consultant, supply chain contractors and sub contractors. This process is essential for reviewing bids and proposal, selecting from among the potential contractors and negotiating a written contract, it also entail risk allocation between the client and the contractor. (PMBOK, 2004) 3.3.4 Monitoring and controlling This process is crucial for collecting, measuring and dissemination performance information, and assessing measurements and trends to effect process improvement Integration and ongoing progress is monitored against agreed milestones, results reported in accordance with mechanisms identified in the communication plan.Secondly monitoring changes and recommending preventive action in anticipation of possible problem is an important element of monitoring and controlling (PMBOK, 2004) 3.3.5 Health and safety and environment Maintenance of health and safety on the site is vital for a successful project delivery. Mandatory personal protective equipment for all the workers on site is necessary Also all the site machine and equipment should be working properly. Workers should be properly trained to use the equipments. 3.3.6 Project closure: this involves closing of project and contract closure. It is necessary for finalizing all activities, completing and settling each contract, including the resolution of any open items and closing each contract applicable to the project. (PMBOK, 2004 3.4 Outline of Project Management Challenges 2012 Olympic Stadium Some of the project management challenges: Design constraints: * This involves getting an aesthetics design which depicts legacy of modern day and world class Olympics, as well as being iconic, environmentally friendly and sustainable in terms of future use and maintenance. * Time constraints; Meeting deadline for the project for the Olympics events is very crucial and one is of the major indicator of measuring success or failure of the project. * Site constraints The soil/site ground is poor from engineering and environmental viewpoint. Owing to past use of the site which resulted in uneven settlement that can only support very light construction. Site is located between two branches of River Lea an old embankment containing sewage artery. The above constraints call for redesigning to suit the site location and environment. * Complexity of the project The multi-project nature of the project involves managing large numbers of subcontractors and supply chain. The construction of the stadium is just one component in the Olympic park, * Resource allocation and scheduling Efficient allocation of resources in multi-project environment is a major challenge facing the programme manager, as this can lead to success or failure of the projects. * Global recession and price inflation The world economic crisis of 2009 is a major challenge for the project, as this will cause price inflation for goods and services required for the project. The initial project estimate will no longer be feasible. * Stakeholders management The project has different level of stakeholder. They include the financier, the host community, the supporters, the critics, the press and the general public. * Project Co-ordination and document control.. The complexity of the project comprises large number of document which might have minor and major changes from the initial design that need to be communicated to people involve with the project. * Logistics Challenges Transportation of huge numbers of workers and materials to the site using the existing means of transportation, amid the busy city of London. * Health and Safety Maintaining safety in the site is a major challenge in construction site with large number of workers and ensuring that all contractors adhere to the health and safety rule in the site. 3.5 Conclusion The facts remains that projects are distinctive and unique in their own way. Project life-cycle as well as their requirements is different from each other. What worked for one organization in a particular project might not work for another; it all depends on the organizational culture and values, project environment, interpersonal skill, etc. The general guideline as contained in the Project Management Body of knowledge is only to serve as a guide that needs to be tailored down to suit a particular project. Also it can be seen that project management is more of a practical discipline than theoretical, this can be deduce from the uniqueness of every projects, because change is inherent in any project. There must be a change from the laid down planned and schedule strategy, change therefore cannot be eliminated, most especially in construction because of the project uncertainty, it is expected that plan must change. The ability of the project manager to apply the principles of risk management and improve effective change management will determine result of the project. 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